Osman I, a Seljuk Turk, began the longest-lasting Muslim empire around 1299 CE. The Seljuks had arrived from the Asiatic steppes (today’s Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan) in the 11th century CE, and had been in Anatolia for generations. Their reign was prevalent from the 11th – 14th centuries and served a trifecta purpose during the Middle Ages. They prevented Europe from being attacked by the Mongolians, fought against the Crusaders, and through military actions, guaranteed Shi’ite Islam would not become dominant. The Seljuks were Christians until they converted to Sunni Islam in the 10th century CE.

For more than 600 years, the Islamic Ottoman Empire power-house expanded into North Africa, Eastern Europe, and large swaths of the Middle East. In 1453, Mehmed II the Conqueror led the Ottoman Turks in seizing Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, thus ending the 1,000-year-old reign of the Byzantine Empire. Under Ottoman rule, advances were made in arts, technology, and architecture. Controlling lucrative trade routes ensured the empire riches for centuries. The regime waxed and waned with its treatment of non-Muslims; the 1915 Armenian Genocide was its most brutal campaign against Christians.

The Ottomans’ relationship with Jews vacillated depending on economic conditions and the reigning ruler of the time.  In 1492, when King Ferdinand & Queen Isabella expelled their Jewish citizens, 150,000 Jews were rescued by the Ottomans through a naval operation ordered by Sultan Bayezid II, who sent ships to Cadiz, Spain. Jewish migration to the Ottoman empire from Inquisition-affected countries lasted several decades. In 1501, Sultan Bayezid II accepted Jews who fled from France.